Atoms The remarkable thing about atoms

The remarkable thing about atoms

The challenge in modelling the atom

The remarkable thing about atoms, is that they resist being compressed, despite the electron being attracted to the atomic nucleus

The approach of the Simple Universe model is to use words and three dimensional pictures to describe things, whereas modern physics uses equations and diagrams

The Standard model of particle physics avoids the collapse of the atom by using quantum fields, the Heisenberg uncertainty principle, and the Pauli exclusion principle

But the Simple Universe model does not contain the principles that modern physics uses to explain the atom

For the Simple Universe model, the challenge is to use particles to model the atom without the atom collapsing, bearing in mind that...

Electrons are attracted to the atomic nucleus, and in general, that attraction will get stronger the closer the electron gets to the nucleus

When electrons move in circles, in general, they radiate particles of light

Electrons and protons form atoms, but the electron and the positron do not form a positronium atom, why is that, what is the explanation

If there is such a particle as the 'neutral' particle, as suggested by the model, then why hasn't it been detected in experiments, re neutral particle detection

If the interaction of light with electric fields is part of the solution, as suggested by the model, then why does light in experiments, show no interaction with electric fields

For reference, here is a YouTube video (2009) of Professor Leonard Susskind's Stanford University lecture discussing the basic concepts of particle physics

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The subatomic particles

Moving a particle of matter

Inertia and momentum

Electric field particles

'Neutral' particle electric field particles

The Simple Universe model has a single elementary particle, the three dimensional strand shaped particle that continuously moves at a constant speed against a static universal reference frame, in three dimensional space

Everything in the Simple Universe model is made from the elementary strand particle

The neutrino and particle of light are helix shaped particles

And the electron, positron and 'neutral' particle are torus shaped particles

In the model, a proton is a positron sandwiched between two of the 'neutral' particles

And a neutron is a proton with an electron embedded into the side of the proton

The following animation shows the shapes and structures of the model's subatomic particles, the  Particles  button steps through the particles, the  Run  button start / stops the animation (any of the buttons can be used in pause mode)

In the model, the particles of matter are torus shaped particles

And in the model, the natural state of a torus shaped particle is to be stationary with respect to the model's static universal reference frame

With the strand shaped particles in a particle of matter moving at a constant speed, for a torus shaped particle of matter to move forwards

The internal strand particles of the particle of matter, have to bunch up on one side or other, distorting the particle's perfectly round torus shape

The following animation shows an electron and a proton in the model, changing shape when the particles move, the  Move Forwards  button starts the particles moving forwards, the  Run  button start / stops the animation (any of the buttons can be used in pause mode)

However, the strand particles inside a particle of matter stick together and continuously pull a distorted particle of matter back into its perfectly round torus shape

This gives a particle of matter a persistent resistance to being moved, with respect to the model's static universal reference frame

In the model, particles of matter have persistent inertia, but not persistent momentum

For a particle of matter to gain persistent movement, a particle of matter needs to be pushed along by something that has persistent momentum, such as a particle of light

In the model, a particle of light has persistent momentum because it is a helix shaped particle

Whereas the particles of matter have persistent inertia because they are torus shaped particles

In the model, a particle of matter obtains persistent momentum when a particle of light attaches itself to the particle of matter and pushes the particle of matter along (which is why particles of matter in the model do not move faster than light)

In the model, momentum and inertia have different causes

In the model, particles of matter have inertia and therefore they have mass, but they do not have momentum

Whereas, light and the neutrino have momentum, but they do not have inertia, and therefore they do not have mass

The following animation shows particles of light in the model attaching themselves to an electron and an electron pair, and pushing the electrons along, the  Run  button start / stops the animation (any of the buttons can be used in pause mode)

In the model, electric charge is a count of the number of strand particles that are in a subatomic particle, the strand particles having either a left-handed curl, or a right-handed curl

In the model, electric field particles are created by the constant speed of the head of the elementary strand shaped particle being greater than the constant speed of its tail

This causes the strand shaped particle to continuously extend itself, with the head of the strand shaped particle eventually breaking free, leaving the strand shaped particle with a new head that repeats the process

The head part of the strand shaped particle that breaks free is the electric field particle in the model

The electric field particles have a helix shape, with either a left helicity or a right helicity, the same helicity as the subatomic particle that generates them

These escaping left or right helix shaped particles, are a particle's positive electric field, or a particle's negative electric field

Please note, the animations do not show the electric field particles exiting from the subatomic particles

In the model, light does not interact with the electric field particles emitted by an electron, or the positron that is inside a proton

But light does interact with the positive and negative electric field particles emitted by the 'neutral' particles that are in a proton

As a suggestion, the electric field particles emitted by the 'neutral' particle are long in length, and their long length allows the 'neutral' particle electric field particles to wrap around a particle of light, stretching out one side of the light while compressing up its other side

Causing the particle of light to arc along its body, and the particle of light alters its direction

Whereas the electric field particles emitted by the electron, and the positron that is inside a proton, are short in length

Their short length is unable to wrap around a particle of light and change the direction of a particle of light

The following animation shows the model's electron, positron, 'neutral' particle, neutrino and particle of light interacting with the short and long electric field particles, the  Interaction  button steps through the interactions, the   01   input box lists the interactions for direct selection, the  Run  button start / stops the animation (any of the buttons can be used in pause mode)

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Electrons are pushed along by an attached particle of light

'Neutral' particle electric field particles are long

Light in a 'neutral' particle electric field

The atom is dominated by the 'neutral' particle electric fields

'Neutral' particle electric fields are ineffective at right angles

Effect on an orbiting electron

Electron moving towards the nucleus

Electron moving away from the nucleus

Overall outcome

In the Simple Universe model, the atom consists of a positively charged atomic nucleus surrounded by negatively charged orbiting electrons

In the Simple Universe model, an electron orbiting the nucleus of an atom, is pushed around the nucleus by a particle of light that is attached to the orbiting electron

The following animation shows particles of light in the model attaching themselves to an electron and an electron pair, and pushing the electrons along, the  Run  button start / stops the animation (any of the buttons can be used in pause mode)

In the model, the positive and negative electric field particles emitted by the 'neutral' particles that are part of the proton and the neutron

Are long in length

Whereas the electric field particles emitted by the electron, or the positron that is inside a proton

Are short in length

The long length of the 'neutral' particle electric field particles, allows them to wrap around the particle of light that is attached to an orbiting electron

And alter the direction of the particle of light that is pushing the orbiting electron along

The following animation shows the model's electron, positron, 'neutral' particle, neutrino and particle of light interacting with the short and long electric field particles, the  Interaction  button steps through the interactions, the   23   input box lists the interactions for direct selection, the  Run  button start / stops the animation (any of the buttons can be used in pause mode)

Based on the actual mass difference between a positron and a proton, and the way in which a 'neutral' particle produces its electric field

The positive and negative electric field particles that come from the two 'neutral' particles that are in a proton, as a suggestion, are in the order of 450 times more intense than the overall naked positive charge that comes from the positron in the proton

This means that within the atom, the positive and negative 'neutral' particle electric fields dominate the behaviour of the light that is attached to the orbiting electrons

However, the positive and negative 'neutral' particle electric fields do not change the direction of the attached light

When the path of the light and the electric fields are at right angles to each other

This has the following effect on the orbiting electrons

Initially at a distance, the electron's negative charge draws the electron (with its attached light) towards the overall positive charge of the nucleus

But the positive and negative 'neutral' particle electric fields also interact with the light that is attached to the electron, with each interaction changing the current direction of the attached light to a different direction

When a positive or negative 'neutral' particle electric field particle interacts with the light that is attached to the electron

And the electron is moving towards the nucleus

Most of the direction changes to the light will be away from the nucleus, which is likely to put the path of the light more at a tangent to the nucleus, and therefore lessen the next interaction with the positive and negative 'neutral' particle electric fields

Whereas when the direction change to the light is more towards the nucleus, this will then strengthen the next interaction with the positive and negative 'neutral particle electric fields, which are now more likely to turn the light away from the nucleus

For the case when the direction of the attached light is exactly towards the nucleus, then the next interaction with the positive and negative 'neutral' particle electric fields

Will always turn the light away from the nucleus

When a positive or negative 'neutral' particle electric field particle interacts with the light that is attached to the electron

And the electron is moving away from the nucleus

Most of the direction changes to the light will be towards the nucleus, which is likely to put the path of the light more at a tangent to the nucleus, and therefore lessen the next interaction with the positive and negative 'neutral' particle electric fields

Whereas when the direction change to the light is more away from the nucleus, this will then strengthen the next interaction with the positive and negative 'neutral particle electric fields, which are now more likely to turn the light back towards the nucleus

For the case when the direction of the attached light is exactly away from the nucleus, then the next interaction with the positive and negative 'neutral' particle electric fields

Will always turn the light back towards the nucleus

Overall, when the electron is moving towards the nucleus, the positive and negative 'neutral' particle electric fields

Will tend to turn the electron and its attached light away from the nucleus, onto a tangential path around the nucleus

And when the electron is moving away from the nucleus, the positive and negative 'neutral' particle electric fields

Will tend to turn the electron and its attached light back towards the nucleus, onto a tangential path around the nucleus

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Tangential path

Light is directed around the nucleus

Understanding physics

In the Simple Universe model of the atom, the positive and negative electric fields that come from the 'neutral' particles that are in the nucleus of the atom

Control the path of an orbiting electron by changing the path of the light that is attached to the orbiting electron

The net outcome is that at a distance, the orbiting electron is attracted towards the nucleus

But close to the nucleus, the orbiting electron is pushed onto a tangential path around the nucleus

The orbiting electron moves around the nucleus in a potential well that sits at a distance from the nucleus

With the potential well bounded on its inner side by a repulsive region surrounding the nucleus

As a suggestion, the orbiting electron does not radiate away its attached light

Because it is the attached light itself that is being directed around the nucleus

Physics could perhaps be easy to understand if we had a computer program model that enabled us to watch atoms and particles interact with each other

The Standard model of particle physics is based on quantum field theory, and the atom is modelled by calculating the probability of where the electron may be found, when a measurement is taken to determine the electron's position, when the electron is near a proton

This appears to make any atom other than the single electron hydrogen atom

Difficult for the mathematics of quantum field theory to model the atom

On the other hand, if the electron and proton were to be modelled as non quantum mechanical particles, then it might be possible to model any atom, no matter how complex

Here is an old video that discusses the mechanism of the atom in the model

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Building the atomic nuclei

Nuclear fusion

Embedded nuclear electrons

Creating positrons

Radioactive decay

Nuclear fission

Neutron absorption

The atomic nuclei of the periodic table of elements are built by means of nuclear fusion that merges small atomic nuclei into larger nuclei

With the elements and their isotopes defined by the number of protons and neutrons that are in their atomic nuclei

In the Simple Universe model, the proton is a positron sandwiched between two 'neutral' particles (the 'neutral' particle is a particle that has equal amounts of positive and negative electric charge)

And the neutron is an electron embedded into the side of a proton

As a suggestion, atomic nuclei in the model are built by using the electron that is embedded in the side of the neutron, to also embed into the side of a proton, joining the proton and neutron together

As a suggestion, the adjacent 'neutral' particles in a nucleus have the same edge spin and their touching edges hold the protons and neutrons together, while the embedded electrons align the protons and neutrons together into a horizontal grid

In the model, atomic nuclei have a flat structure

Which is different to the spherical structure that is often used to depict an atomic nucleus

Image produced by Wikipedia user Marekich

The following animation shows protons and neutrons in the model, bonding together to form the atomic nuclei of hydrogen through to carbon, with decay sequences included for the unstable isotopes, the  Run  button start / stops the animation (any of the buttons can be used in pause mode)

The following is an interactive animation, that lets you build the atomic nuclei, from hydrogen through to iron in the model, the  Next  button steps through prepared atomic nuclei configurations, the  Filter  input box lists the prepared atomic nuclei configurations for direct selection, the  Run  button start / stops the animation (any of the buttons can be used in pause mode)

Plot of experimentally determined atomic nuclei stability and decay

Image produced by Wikimedia user Sjlegg

For reference, here is a computer visualisation of the quantum gluon field that, in the Standard Model of particle physics, binds protons and neutrons together in an atomic nucleus

Visualisation of the quantum gluon field

Image produced by James Biddle, Josh Charvetto, Waseem Kamleh, Derek Leinweber, Helen Piercy, Ethan Puckridge, Finn Stokes, Ross D. Young, James Zanott, in their scientific paper (2019) Publicising Lattice Field Theory Through Visualisation

Each larger nucleus has more internal touching surfaces within its nucleus, than that of the individual protons and neutrons that make up its nucleus

As a suggestion, when the internal touching surfaces within a nucleus increases, the electric field particles that are escaping from the 'neutral' particles that are in the protons and neutrons of the nucleus, have difficulty in escaping

And they build up to a greater density than before, with the now denser escaping electric field dragging some of the strand particles away from the 'neutral' particles as particles of light and neutrinos

As a suggestion, the conversion of this mass into particles of light, continues until the previous stable, lesser density of the escaping electric field particles, is reached once more, and strand particles are not further removed from the 'neutral' particles by the escaping electric field particles

This leaves the newly formed nucleus with less mass than the mass of the components when they were separate

As a suggestion, the 'neutral' particles in the inner parts of the nucleus, experience this loss in mass, more than the 'neutral' particles on the outer parts of the nucleus

As a suggestion, the electrons that are embedded in the side of the neutrons, and the positrons that are inside the protons, are not affected by the process of mass reduction that the 'neutral' particles incur during nuclear fusion

As a suggestion, the contact of the nuclear electrons and positrons with the 'neutral' particles, forces the release of their electric field particles to be at a faster rate than their normal frequency, keeping the density of their escaping electric field particles at a lower than normal density

When mass is lost from a 'neutral' particle, the strand particles that are dragged from the 'neutral' particle, can escape in the form of a neutrino or a particle of light

As a suggestion, when the loss in mass is great enough, the escaping strand particles are able to form a gamma ray particle of light, which as a suggestion, on collision with another nucleus, are able to change into an electron-positron pair

As a suggestion, if a positron, by what ever means, becomes embedded into the side of a proton or neutron in a nucleus, then over time the nucleus is able to eject the side embedded positron as radioactive decay

And a similar suggestion, a nucleus that is neutron rich, is able to eject an electron that is embedded in the side of one of its neutrons, as radioactive decay

With large nuclei, as a suggestion, the increased overall positive charge of the nucleus and the increased electric field particles escaping from the interior of the nucleus, becomes a limiting factor in the stability of the nucleus, leading to some of the large nuclei being unstable and splitting apart as fission

Freely moving, slow thermal neutrons have a smaller particle of light pushing them along than fast moving neutrons, and as a suggestion, this perhaps could make them less likely to be deflected by the positive and negative 'neutral' particle electric fields of a nucleus

Perhaps this is why slow moving thermal neutrons in a nuclear chain reaction, are better at propagating the nuclear chain reaction than fast moving neutrons (slow moving with respect to the model's static universal reference frame)

For reference, here is a YouTube video (2014) of Dr Bob Eagle discussing nuclear fusion in stars (from the YouTube channel DrPhysicsA)

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Positronium

Antiprotonic hydrogen

Antiprotonic helium

There is a hydrogen-like atom referred to as positronium, that consists of an electron and a positron

However, the positronium atom is not stable and the two particles change into particles of light

As a suggestion, in the Simple Universe model, the positronium atom collapses because neither the electron nor the positron, contain a 'neutral' particle

And without the presence of the positive and negative 'neutral' particle electric fields, there is nothing to stop the negative electron and positive positron from spiralling down into each other

When the electron and positron particles collide

They may touch one on top of the other, with their horizontal (toroidal) spins moving in the same direction

As a suggestion, when the electron and positron touch side-by-side, with their horizontal spins moving in the same direction

This could allow the gaps on their torus structures to line up and enable the electron and positron to split open, and become a pair of helix structures, which in the Simple Universe model, is a particle of light

Here is an old video that discusses an electron and positron combining into light

There is also another hydrogen-like atom referred to as antiprotonic hydrogen, where the orbiting negative electron in a normal hydrogen atom is replaced with an orbiting negative antiproton

As a suggestion, the instability of antiprotonic hydrogen may be a con-sequence of the proton and antiproton's heavy masses, and the mechanics of how the two particles interact with each other's positive and negative 'neutral' particle electric fields

There is also a helium-like atom referred to as antiprotonic helium, where one of the orbiting negative electrons in a normal helium atom is replaced with an orbiting negative antiproton

Again as a suggestion, the instability of antiprotonic helium may be a con-sequence of the antiproton and helium nucleus's heavy masses, and the mechanics of how the antiproton and helium nucleus interact with each other's positive and negative 'neutral' particle electric fields

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Electric fields have gaps

Quantum tunnelling is where a charged subatomic particle progresses further than expected into a repulsive electric field

The Standard model of particle physics models the subatomic particles as quantum waves that have a wave-particle duality that explore all possible paths, with the probablistic nature of the quantum wave allowing quantum tunnelling to occur

Whereas in the Simple Universe model, the subatomic particles are modelled as ordinary particles that move in three dimensional space in an ordinary, non quantum mechanical manner

In the Simple Universe model, electric fields are constructed using electric field particles, and being made of particles, an electric field in the model is not continuous, there are gaps inbetween the electric field particles

Because there are gaps inbetween the electric field particles, there is a probability of a charged particle progressing further than expected through a repulsive electric field

In the Simple Universe model, quantum tunnelling is a non quantum mechanical process

For reference, here is a YouTube video (2022) of the Physics Explained channel discussing quantum tunnelling, using the example of the emission of alpha particles from an atomic nucleus

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Macro distances

Electron in a macro electric field

Magnetic fields

At macro distances, the presence of an overall positive or an overall negative electric field, is due to the surrounding objects having a different number of electrons to protons

In the Simple Universe model, this results in the positive and negative short electric field particles emitted by the electrons and protons, not being equal in number, and a positive or a negative macro electric field is created

Also at macro distances, in the model the positive and negative 'neutral' particle electric fields from the surface of an object have overlapping directions, and as a suggestion, cause a reduced / minimal effect on the path of light

When an electron moves through a macro electric field at a distance from an object, the short electric field particles change the direction of the electron, but do not change the direction of the attached particle of light that is pushing the electron along

As a suggestion, when the electron changes direction, but the attached particle of light does not change direction, this causes a portion of the attached particle of light to separate from the electron

As a suggestion, a magnetic field is a positive and negative electric field that is overall neutral, and that from each point source of the positive and negative electric field, the direction of the individual positive and negative field particles, are at an angle to each other

Here is an old video that discusses the electron and magnetic fields

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