How The Model Works, For A Simple Physics Model
(as simple as possible, but not any simpler) A  Physics  Model The  Simple  Model The  Simple  Universe

This physics model consists of a universe

That, as a suggestion, starts as a point source, which once formed

Then continuously increases in size as a spherical three dimensional volume of space

The model contains one type of elementary particle, a three dimensional strand shaped particle, that as a suggestion

Is created in a continuous manner at the expanding edge of the universe's three dimensional volume of space

(Or if you prefer, the Big Bang suggestion could be used)

As a suggestion, the strand shaped particle moves continuously at a single constant speed, in relation to the model's static universal reference frame

And the strand shaped particle has the interaction, that when it touches another of the strand shaped particles

The two particles tend to stick to each other, and while in contact, they influence each other's direction of travel

As a suggestion, the dense population of strand shaped particles created at the expanding edge of the universe

Interact to form the model's first right-handed and left-handed neutrinos

And these interact to form the model's first electrons, positrons, right-handed 'neutral' particles, and left-handed 'neutral' particles

As a suggestion

Some of the neutrinos join side by side

To form the model's first particles of light

As a suggestion

Some of the positrons become sandwiched between a left-handed and a right-handed 'neutral' particle

To form the model's first protons

And

Some of the protons couple with electrons

To form the model's first hydrogen atoms

And as a suggestion

Some of the electrons become sandwiched between a left-handed and a right-handed 'neutral' particle

To form the model's first antiprotons

And

Some of the antiprotons couple with positrons

To form the model's first antihydrogen atoms

In addition, as a suggestion, in the model

A neutron is a proton with an electron embedded into the side of the proton

And an antineutron is an antiproton with a positron embedded into the side of the antiproton

By some mechanism (unknown), if either protons, or antiprotons, were to be formed in a greater number

Then once all annihilations of matter and antimatter have taken place, either some protons and some electrons would be left over to form hydrogen atoms

Or some antiprotons and some positrons would be left over to form antihydrogen atoms

Simply as a thought, what methods might there be

That could lead to the formation of protons over antiprotons, or vice versa - for example, could the expanding edge of the universe have a feature, such that, at the edge, protons are created over antiprotons, or vice versa

Although different, as an example of a process that naturally became biased, life on earth evolved to use only one form, of the multiple chiral forms of organic molecules

Traditionally, our universe is considered as consisting of ordinary matter, with little if any antimatter in the universe

And that ordinary matter consists of particles, as opposed to antiparticles

But this physics model is different

Throughout this physics model's universe, at every location

The number of the model's base particles

Is the same as the number of the model's base antiparticles

That is, in this model, on dismantling the components of an atom

The number of electrons is the same as the number of positrons

And the number of right-handed 'neutral' particles is the same as the number of left-handed 'neutral' particles

Whether a universe is created by something

And that something is itself created by something else ad infinitum

Or whether a universe comes into existence from nothing

Is not clear, for both seem to have difficulties in logic

Multiple universes would also seem to be an inevitable outcome

Although in such cases, perhaps

The universes may not be able to detect each other

If two universes come into existence without either having caused the other to form

Then as suggestion, the two universes are likely to exist

At an infinite distance apart from each other

This can perhaps, be proposed by considering an arbitrary distance surrounding a universe, say ten of its 'universe widths', and asking

What is the chance of another universe forming inside that distance

Compared to the chance of that new universe forming in the distance beyond that 'ten universe width'?

Since the distance of the nothing beyond is infinite

The new universe would perhaps, be more likely to form in the infinite beyond

Than in the arbitrary 'ten universe width', and that is true for whatever size of arbitrary width is chosen

In effect

Each universe would seem as if it were the only universe in existence

Even if it is not

The base particles in the model have a helicity to their construction

Which can be either clockwise or anticlockwise

This gives the base particles the concept of electric charge - either 'positive' or 'negative'

In the model

Motion comes from the strand shaped elementary particle

Moving continuously at a single constant speed, against the model's static universal reference frame, in three dimensional space

As a suggestion, electric field particles are created

By the constant speed of the head of the strand shaped elementary particle

Being greater than the constant speed of its tail

This causes each strand shaped particle to continuously extend itself

With the head of the strand shaped particle eventually breaking free

Leaving the strand shaped particle with a new head, that as a suggestion, repeats the process

This leads to a stream of helix shaped particles

That exit from the front of a helix shaped base particle

Or from gaps on the surface of a torus shaped base particle

In the model

The stream of helix shaped particles are the electric field particles

Please note, the animations do not show the electric field particles exiting from the base particles

Each electric field particle

Has a helix shape

That has the same handiness as its parent base particle itself

Please note, the physics engine is required, in order to know the forward speed of the electric field particles

In the model, the forward speed of the electric field particles is dependent on the helical diameter of the electric field particle

Depending on what that diameter is, the forward speed of the electric field particles, could be greater, the same as, or less than the forward speed of a particle of light

As a suggestion

The left-handed base particles have positive electric charge, and produce left-handed positive electric field particles

And the right-handed base particles have negative electric charge, and produce right-handed negative electric field particles

Since the 'neutral' particle is a left-handed torus moving inside a right-handed torus, or vice versa

The 'neutral' particle has both positive and negative electric charge

In effect

The base particles are pieces of electric charge - including the neutrino and the 'neutral' particle

And the base particles produce electric field particles - including the neutrino and the 'neutral' particle

In the model

The electric field particles escaping from the outer torus of a 'neutral' particle

Are unable to escape as helix shaped particles

This causes a 'neutral' particle

To produce only a positive electric field, or only a negative electric field

Depending on whether the inner torus of the 'neutral' particle is a left-handed torus, or a right-handed torus

Based on the actual mass difference between an electron and a proton, and the way in which a 'neutral' particle in the model produces its electric field

As a suggestion, in the model, the electric field from a single 'neutral' particle

Is in the order of 450 times more intense than the electric field from an electron

In the model, a 'neutral' particle

Produces an intense electric field

But itself, interacts only slightly with an electric field

In this physics model

All four base particles have electric fields

Including the neutrino and the 'neutral' particle

It is the electric field particles

Escaping from the three torus shaped base particles - the electron, positron and 'neutral' particle

That causes the three torus shaped base particles to form to a fixed size

Being a closed torus, unlike the open-ended helix of the neutrino base particle

As a suggestion, the internally generated electric field particles escape from a torus shaped base particle

By forcing open a gap on the surface of the torus

As a suggestion, the torus shaped base particles, are always formed from neutrinos that have a long helix structure

And when the long helix is bent around and becomes a closed torus, the electric field particles escape through gaps on the outer surface of the torus

And as they escape, they drag with them, some of the strand particles from the torus

With the diameter of the torus getting smaller

The outer surface of the torus starts to have larger gaps

Making it easier for a lesser density of the electric field particles, to escape

This continues until the torus reaches a minimum number of internal strand particles - with a surface that now has large gaps

Where the now lesser density of the escaping electric field particles, as a suggestion

Are no longer able to drag further strand particles, from the torus

When this point is reached

The electric field particles escape from the torus shaped base particle, in repeating pulses

But without further reducing the number of the strand particles in the torus shaped base particle

The escaping electric field particles

Result in the electron and positron torus shaped base particles, forming to a set number of strand particles

And therefore to a set mass and to a set amount of electric charge

In the case of the 'neutral' base particle, as a suggestion

The overlapping pair of toruses, cause the set size of the 'neutral' base particle

To be a greater set size, than the set size of the electron and the positron base particles

As a suggestion

The 'neutral' particle has a greater mass than that of the electron and the positron

And contains a greater amount of electric charge than that of the electron and the positron

When the double torus 'neutral' particle is formed from two neutrinos of different length helixes, then as a suggestion

The longer helix, once it is bent around into the closed torus

Is stripped first, of its strand particles, by the escaping electric field particles

When the length of the longer helix in the double torus 'neutral' particle, becomes the same length as the shorter helix

The strand particles are stripped equally from the, now equal length helixes, that are inside the double torus 'neutral' particle

Resulting in the double torus 'neutral' particle, forming with equal amounts of positive and negative electric charge

As a suggestion

The final size of a 'neutral' particle has a slightly larger outer torus than inner torus

Causing a 'neutral' particle to not quite have equal amounts of positive and negative electric charge

Since, in the model, a proton contains a pair of left and right 'neutral' particles

The overall positive naked charge of a proton

Remains as that of its internal positron

It is hard to visualise how small atoms and the subatomic particles are

For example, the number of atoms in one of your hands is roughly equal to 10²⁴ atoms

That is 1,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 atoms (derived using Avogadro's constant)

As a way to visualise the number of atoms in one of your hands

The number of atoms in one of your hands, represented as the same number of soft drink cans

Would cover the entire surface of the world with soft drink cans, stacked 200 miles high, everywhere, over every inch of the world

The subatomic particles

The neutrino, particle of light, electron, positron, left-handed 'neutral' particle, right-handed 'neutral' particle, proton, neutron

All contain a helicity to their construction that can be clockwise or anticlockwise

This produces the concept of a particle's electric charge

Either positive or negative

With the 'neutral' particle consisting of both positive and negative electric charge

The subatomic particles

Produce their electric field particles, positive or negative

According to the helicity of the strand shaped particles that are contained in the subatomic particle

The electric field particles that are created inside a particle of matter (which is a closed torus, unlike the open-ended helix of the neutrino and particle of light)

Build up, and as a suggestion

Eventually escape from the particle of matter by forcing open a gap on the surface of the torus

On escaping

The gap on the surface of the torus closes, and the process starts again

This results in the electric field particles escaping from a particle of matter in repeating pulses

In the model

The proton is a positron sandwiched between a left-handed 'neutral' particle and a right-handed 'neutral' particle

And the neutron is a proton with an electron embedded into the side of the proton

The model's strand shaped elementary particle has one interaction

When a strand shaped particle touches another strand shaped particle

The two particles tend to stick together, and while in contact, they influence each other's direction of travel

A particle of matter has a torus shape, and the interaction of an electric field particle with the strand shaped particles that make up a particle of matter

Cause the strand shaped particles in the particle of matter, to bunch up on one side or other

And the particle of matter in the electric field, moves

The strongest interaction occurs

When an electric field particle touches a particle of matter side by side

With the electric field particle moving in the plane of the particle of matter's torus shape

And the weakest, or no interaction at all, occurs

When an electric field particle touches a particle of matter

At right angles to the plane of particle of matter's torus shape

When the touching surfaces of an electric field particle and a particle of matter, are either in some way

Both moving in the same direction (both 'up', or both 'down')

The strand shaped particles on that side of the particle of matter will stretch out

When the touching surfaces are, in some way

Both moving in opposite directions (one 'up' and the other 'down')

The strand shaped particles on that side of the particle of matter will compress up

Electron example

When a negative electron interacts with a negative electric field particle

The internal movement of the electron bunches up on the side of the electron that is moving away from the source of the negative field

And the negative electron as a whole moves away from the source of the negative field

When a negative electron interacts with a positive electric field particle

The internal movement of the electron bunches up on the side of the electron that is moving towards the source of the positive field

And the negative electron as a whole moves towards the source of the positive field

Positron example

When a positive positron interacts with a negative electric field particle

The internal movement of the positron bunches up on the side of the positron that is moving towards the source of the negative field

And the positive positron as a whole moves towards the source of the negative field

When a positive positron interacts with a positive electric field particle

The internal movement of the positron bunches up on the side of the positron that is moving away from the source of the positive field

And the positive positron as a whole moves away from the source of the positive field

'Neutral' particle example

The slightly larger outer torus of a 'neutral' particle, to its inner torus

Gives a 'neutral' particle a small interaction with an electric field

In the same manner as the above examples

As a note, a suggestion is required as to what a magnetic field is in this physics model

As a suggestion, in the model, a magnetic field could perhaps be an overall neutral electric field

That from each atomic point source of the electric field

The majority of the short positive electric field particles move in one direction, and the majority of the short negative electric field particles move in another direction, the two directions being at an angle to each other

As a suggestion

The positive and negative electric field particles emitted by a 'neutral' particle

Are long in length

As a suggestion

The positive and negative electric field particles emitted by an electron, or the positron that is inside a proton

Are short in length

A neutrino and a particle of light also produce electric field particles

But for the simplicity of this discussion

Are not included here

The long electric field particles from a 'neutral' particle

As a suggestion, are able to wrap around the two helixes of a particle of light, stretching out one side of the particle of light, and compressing up the other side of the particle of light

Causing the particle of light to arc along its body and change direction

But the long electric field particles from a 'neutral' particle

Are not able to change the direction of a particle of light

When the electric field particles are moving at right angles to the particle of light

The short electric field particles from an electron, or a positron that is inside a proton

As a suggestion, are not able to wrap around a particle of light

And are not able to change the path of a particle of light

Neutrinos

Are pieces of electric charge

That are not affected by electric fields

When a long electric field particle wraps around a neutrino

Either all sides of the single helix neutrino are compressed, or all sides of the single helix neutrino are stretched

Leaving the direction of the neutrino unaltered by the electric field particle

Electric field particles escape from a particle of matter

By forcing open a gap on the surface of the particle of matter

And escaping in repeating pulses

If the pulsating positive and negative 'neutral' particle electric fields from individual nuclei, were to synchronise across the atoms in a substance

Then the path of a particle light could perhaps be influenced when the particle of light passes near the surface of that substance

In which case, the double-slit experiment, the refraction of a particle of light, and the reflection of a particle of light

Could perhaps be examples of this effect

In the double-slit experiment, the particle of light, or the subatomic particle that is being pushed along by a particle of light

Could perhaps be directed as a diffraction pattern around the edge of a slit

By the pulsating positive and negative 'neutral' particle electric fields at the edge of that slit

With refraction of a particle of light into a transparent medium, the pulsating positive and negative 'neutral' particle electric fields on the surface of the transparent medium

Could perhaps direct the particle of light around the inner edge of an atom, or group of atoms, on the surface

Towards a tangential path that is down into the transparent medium

With refraction of a particle of light out of a transparent medium, the pulsating positive and negative 'neutral' particle electric fields on the surface of the transparent medium

Could perhaps direct the particle of light around the outer edge of an atom, or group of atoms, on the surface

Towards a tangential path that is parallel with the surface of the transparent medium

For reflection of a particle of light from the surface of a substance, the pulsating positive and negative 'neutral' particle electric fields on the surface of the substance

Could perhaps direct the particle of light away from the outer edge of an atom, or group of atoms, on the surface

Towards a tangential path that is parallel with the surface of the substance

On meeting the next atom, or group of atoms, on the surface of the substance

The particle of light could perhaps be directed away from the outer edge of those atoms

And the particle of light could perhaps then leave the surface of the substance at an angle

For total internal reflection within a transparent medium

The particle of light could perhaps be directed away from the inner edge of an atom, or group of atoms, on the surface of the transparent medium

And the particle of light could perhaps then pass back into the transparent medium

In the model, the suggestion is that atoms in general direct a particle of light onto a tangential path around their nuclei

Which perhaps could be the cause of reflection and refraction

And the bending of a particle of light around small objects

The direction of a particle of light onto a tangential path around a nucleus, could perhaps be how a particle of light

Is able to pass through certain substances

Without the particle of light colliding with the atoms in that substance, for example the atoms in air or glass

At large distances from a surface

The individual pulsating positive and negative 'neutral' particle electric fields from the different parts of a surface, overlap

And as a suggestion, their ability to affect light at a distance could perhaps be reduced

In the model, a particle of light is a long thin particle

This could perhaps result in little, if any deflection of a particle of light at all, when beams of particles of light are crossed

(In much the same way perhaps, that throwing a javelin at another javelin, any collision between the two, would cause little if any deflection of either javelin)

To get a particle of light to interact with another particle of light

The individual particles of light might perhaps need to touch side by side

Laser light perhaps might be an example of particles of light touching side by side

Everything in this physics model is built using the model's strand shaped elementary particle - a particle that moves at a continuous constant speed in three dimensional space

The model starts by building its four base particles

The neutrino, electron, positron, 'neutral' particle

The model's four base particles - the neutrino, electron, positron, 'neutral' particle

Are used to build

A particle of light, the proton, neutron, and then on to the atomic nuclei and atoms

In this physics model

The subatomic particles

Have a shape, a size, a surface, and a structure

In the model

The neutrino and particle of light are constructed with the helix shaped base particles

The electron, positron, 'neutral' particle, proton and neutron are constructed with the torus shaped base particles

In the model

A neutrino is a left-handed or right-handed helix shaped particle

And a particle of light is a pair of left-handed and right-handed helix shaped particles, joined side by side

In the model

An electron is a right-handed torus shaped particle

And the positron is a left-handed torus shaped particle

In the model

The left-handed 'neutral' particle is a left-handed torus particle inside a right-handed torus particle

And the right-handed 'neutral' particle is a right-handed torus particle inside a left-handed torus particle

In the model

The proton is a positron sandwiched between a pair of the left and right 'neutral' particles

And the neutron is a proton with an electron embedded into the side of the proton

In the model, the types of subatomic particles that can be constructed from the strand shaped particle is limited

With the rules for converting one subatomic particle to another

A consequence of their construction

This makes the rules in the model

For converting one subatomic particle into another

Understood by looking at the particles

For example, in the model, the difference between the positron and the electron

Is that the positron is a left-handed torus

And the electron is a right-handed torus

And the difference between an antiproton and a proton (in addition to the antiproton's internal electron as compared to the proton's internal positron)

Is that the antiproton has its pair of left and right 'neutral' particles that surround its internal electron, flipped 180 degrees

Compared to the proton's pair of left and right 'neutral' particles that surround its internal positron

In the model

The concept of particle and antiparticle

Applies only to the torus constructed particles of matter

A torus constructed particle of matter

Can be either left-handed or right-handed

Giving all the particles of matter a particle and an antiparticle form

When a matching pair of particle and antiparticle matter particles touch side by side, the gaps on their torus rings, caused by their escaping electric fields, as a suggestion, might align (discussed in the 'Matter particle size' section)

As a suggestion, when the gaps on the touching torus rings align, the touching torus rings might break open and form a left-handed helix that is side by side with a right-handed helix, which in the model, is a particle of light

When a particle of light is formed in this way, then the left and right helix portions of the particle of light will always be of equal lengths

In the model

The concept of particle and antiparticle does not apply to particles of light or neutrinos

As particles of light and neutrinos are already in a helix form

In this physics model, the elementary particle is a strand shaped particle

That has a shape, and a size, and a surface

And at any one moment in time, a specific position in three dimensional space

In the model, all the subatomic particles are made from the strand shaped particle

As a consequence, in the model, the subatomic particles do not have a wave-particle duality

Nor do the subatomic particles fundamentally follow a Heisenberg uncertainty principle

Nor do the subatomic particles fundamentally follow a Pauli exclusion principle

The model uses streams of the electric field particles to produce wave-like behaviour

Such as the wave-like behaviour of electrons in the atom

And the wave-like behaviour of particles of light in the double-slit experiment, and the variation in the reflection of particles of light from glass

Link to the model's

Discussion on using particles for the

Mechanism for the atom

Link to the model's

Discussion on the double-slit experiment

Mechanism for diffraction

Link to the model's

Discussion on the variation in the reflection of light from glass

Mechanism for the variation in reflection

In the Standard Model of particle physics, the elementary particles are based on quantum field theory, where elementary particles are excited states (also referred to as quanta) of their underlying fields

In a sense, the quantum fields in the Standard Model are more fundamental than the elementary particles themselves

Quantum fields are different to particles, in that quantum fields are relativistic waves spread out in space

In this physics model

The shape of a particle is important

And the mechanics of interaction is important

The mathematical form of this physics model

Is a physics engine that processes the behaviour of a three dimensional strand shaped particle

That moves continuously at a single constant speed, against a static universal reference frame, in three dimensional space

The strand shaped elementary particle has one interaction, touch at its surface

When a strand shaped particle touches another strand shaped particle, the two particles tend to stick together

And while in contact, the particles influence each other's direction of travel

The various behaviours of every particle and every object in the model

Is a consequence of the continuous constant speed of the strand shaped particle

And a consequence of the shapes of the subatomic particles that are formed from the strand shaped particle

If required to copy the behaviour of the high level subatomic particles in the model, using standalone equations, such as the equations found in the mathematical formulation of the Standard Model of particle physics

Then the physics engine that processes the behaviour of the strand shaped particle, would need to be run on a computer

And the behaviour of the subsequently created high level subatomic particles observed, and that observed behaviour formulated into standalone equations

There is the question

How 'abruptly' does the surface of the strand shaped particle end?

It may be that the boundary of the strand shaped particle is a gradient of density that reduces down across distance

Movement in this physics model

Comes from the head and tail of the strand shaped elementary particle

Moving continuously at constant speeds, in three dimensional space, against the model's static universal reference frame

In the model, the neutrino and particle of light are constructed with the helix shaped base particles

The continuous constant speed of the strand particles, within a helix shaped particle

Gives the neutrino and particle of light, a persistent forward movement, with respect to the model's static universal reference frame

In the model

The neutrino and particle of light

Have the quality of persistent momentum

In the model, the particles of matter are constructed with the torus shaped base particles

The continuous constant speed of the strand particles, within a torus shaped particle

Gives the particles of matter, the natural state of being stationary, with respect to the model's static universal reference frame, when the torus shaped particles are perfectly round

With the strand particles moving continuously at a single constant speed, inside a particle of matter

For a particle of matter to move forwards

The particle of matter's perfectly round torus shaped particles have to distort

Distorting a torus shaped particle

Causes a greater amount of internal movement to be on one side or other of the torus

And the particle of matter as a whole, moves forwards

Please note, in the model, when a particle of matter moves

The shape of the particle of matter, elongates in the direction of its movement

But within an atom, this change in shape of the torus shaped particles, as a suggestion, causes the proton's electric field to elongate in the direction of the proton's movement, contracting the atom in the atom's direction of movement

The strand particles inside a particle of matter

Stick together and continuously pull a distorted particle of matter

Back into its perfectly round torus shape

This gives a particle of matter

A continuous resistance to being moved

With respect to the model's static universal reference frame

Particles of matter in the model

Have persistent inertia, they have a mass-like property built in

But the particles of matter do not have persistent momentum

For a particle of matter in the model, to gain persistent momentum

The particle of matter requires a particle of light, with its persistent momentum

To push the particle of matter along

The gain in momentum, and therefore the gain in speed

Is related to the size of the particle of light

That is pushing the particle of matter along

With particles of light pushing particles of matter along

This is why particles of matter in the model

Do not move faster than light

The persistent speed of a particle of matter is altered

When particles of light are added to the attached particle of light that is pushing the particle of matter along

Or when particles of light, or parts of a particle of light, are removed from the particle of light that is pushing the particle of matter along

A neutrino has a limited interaction with matter

As its single helix structure

Does not easily attach itself to a particle of matter

In the model

Particles of matter have inertia but not momentum

And particles of light have momentum but not inertia

To match our universe

Inertia and momentum need to be indistinguishable

And yet, in the model, inertia and momentum have different causes

As a starting point, the model matches our universe in the sense that

The final persistent speed of any of its particles of matter

Always correlates to the momentum of the particle of light that is pushing the particle of matter along

A suggestion is required

As to how small portions of the attached particle of light may be incrementally removed

When a particle of matter slows down against the model's static universal reference frame, due to an electric, magnetic, or gravitational field

And similarly, a suggestion is required

As to how small amounts of particles of light may be incrementally added

When a particle of matter speeds up against the model's static universal reference frame, due to an electric, magnetic, or gravitational field

An approach for the above

Could perhaps be the mechanism

By which substances gain and lose heat

When a particle of light is attached to a particle of matter and pushing the particle of matter along

The particle of light is unable to move forward at its natural forward speed

The forward motion of the particle of light is reduced, but not the speed of the strand particles themselves that are inside the particle of light

When a portion of the attached particle of light is released from a particle of matter

The restriction on the released particle of light's forward motion through space is removed

The released particle of light returns to its natural forward speed, since the speed of the strand particles inside the particle of light, never changed from their continuous constant speed

In this physics model

Particles of matter do not move forwards faster than light

Because it is a particle of light that pushes the particle of matter along

For a particle of matter

Reaching the speed of light is also unattainable too

The particle of matter's persistent resistance to forward movement, always hinders the movement of the attached particle of light to some extent

In the model

There is nothing special about the speed of light

A particle of light experiences events, just as any other particle experiences events

Nor is there anything special about faster than light travel

For that is how the strand shaped elementary particle moves

As a consequence, for example, the surface of the electron has a constant movement, that is faster than the speed of light

Perhaps one way to think of movement in the model, is that everything in the atomic world moves at a reasonable, steady pace

And it is us who are very large

And it is us who do things very, very slowly

In this physics model

Motion is in relation to a static universal reference frame

And yet in our universe no such static universal reference frame has been detected

In this discussion, attention is focused on the relativistic "travelling twin" scenario

And the behaviour of a clock when in one inertial reference frame

Compared to the clock's behaviour when in a different inertial reference frame

If, as assumed in the theory of special relativity

Inertial reference frames have equivalence

Then the behaviour of the clock should be the same, regardless as to which inertial reference frame the clock is in

In the travelling twin scenario

There are apparent changes in rates of time that the twins see equally in each other

When coasting away from each other, or when coasting towards each other

But there is also an actual loss of time incurred by the travelling twin

For when the travelling twin returns home

Her clock has less time on it than her stay at home twin's clock

In this discussion

The loss of time on the travelling twin's clock is related to the distance of the journey

Any additional loss of time related to acceleration can be removed from the scenario, if required, sometimes referred to as the "three-brother" version of the scenario

To explain the travelling twin's loss of time

Something is required to be different about her time during her journey

Compared to her stay at home twin's time

A common explanation is that the loss of time is because

At some point during the journey

The travelling twin's rate of time slowed down

With that explanation

At some point in her journey

The travelling twin's now slowed rate of time, has to speed up, in order to return to the earth's rate of time

For when the travelling twin returns to earth, in the inertial reference frame of the earth, although her clock shows less time, her clock once more ticks at the same rate as other clocks tick on earth

In this common explanation

The inertial reference frame change that increased her rate of time back up to the earth's rate of time

Would require an inertial reference frame change that behaves differently

To the inertial reference frame change that slowed her rate of time down from the earth's rate of time

But that is not possible

If all inertial reference frames

Have the same behaviour

If the assumption

Is that all inertial reference frames have the same behaviour

Then a logical inconsistency occurs in the common explanation of the travelling twin's loss of time

What if the loss of time is because during her journey

The travelling twin's path through spacetime is shorter than her stay at home twin's path through spacetime

Now her rate of time does not change (referred to as proper time), as it is only her position in spacetime that changes

But at the end of the journey

The length of the travelling twin's now shorter path through spacetime, would need to lengthen

So that she can return to the longer spacetime path of her stay at home twin, and the two can once more be next to each other in spacetime

Again, this requires one inertial reference frame change to behave differently to another inertial reference frame change

The first inertial reference frame change shortens her current path in spacetime

Whereas the second inertial reference frame change lengthens her current path in spacetime

These logical inconsistencies suggest that

Any explanation that includes inertial reference frames being equivalent to one another

Will contain a logical inconsistency in their explanation as to the travelling twin's loss in time

The above logical inconsistencies suggest

That the behaviour of changing from one inertial reference frame to another

Is dependent on the movement of the inertial reference frame relative to a static universal reference frame

Supporting evidence

For a static universal reference frame

Also comes from the constant speed of light

When particles of light move in the same direction

They do not catch up with each other, nor do they move apart from each other

This suggests that particles of light move at their constant speed with respect to a single reference frame

If a static universal reference frame is accepted as part of this physics model, then there is the question

Can that static universal reference frame be detected

By things that are inside the model?

To see if the static universal reference frame can be detected from inside the model

Scenarios could be investigated using a computer program of the model

And the computerised results of any real world example compared to experiment

Having a static universal reference frame

Suggests that spacetime

Might perhaps be a mathematical concept

In this physics model, there is no reversal of time

The strand shaped elementary particle creates child strand shaped particles

There is no absorption of child strand shaped particles by the strand shaped elementary particle

As a suggestion, the concept of a direction to time, is related to what objects do, and is not related to time in itself

As a suggestion, time is the presence of movement with the presence of length

Time is either present, or it is absent

If there is a static universal reference frame present in our universe, but it cannot be detected

Then the choice of which inertial reference frame to consider as the static universal reference frame

Would be arbitrary

That would explain as to why the calculations of special relativity work

Since the inertial reference frame that the calculations are being performed in, can always be considered as stationary with respect to the static universal reference frame

That would allow moving away from the current inertial reference frame, to calculate time as slowing down, and when returning back to that inertial reference frame, to calculate time as speeding up

Although there may be a logical inconsistency in special relativity

That does not mean that the calculations of special relativity are inaccurate

Or that the calculations of special relativity are any less useful

In this physics model, the rate of time is constant

The strand shaped elementary particle, moves through three dimensional space

Continuously at a single constant speed

As a suggestion

The ability of any object in the model to measure that fixed rate of time

Varies when the object as a whole moves

The suggestion is

That the inability to measure the model's fixed rate of time

Is true, whether the moving object is a mechanical clock, a biological clock, an atomic clock, radioactive decay of an unstable atomic nucleus, or decay of an unstable subatomic particle - anything that is made from the strand shaped elementary particle

As a suggestion, in general in this physics model

Moving clocks measure a slower rate of time than stationary clocks

Because the electrons and protons in an atom in the model, become restricted in their change of movement, the closer the atom gets to the speed of light

There are a large number of relativistic scenarios to consider for the model

The following

Are two examples

The light clock scenario requires that atoms in this physics model change their behaviour when they move

As a suggestion, when a light clock in the model moves

The electrons in the atoms of the light clock emit their particles of light in a more forward direction, than when the light clock is stationary

Another scenario is the rate of decay of an unstable subatomic particle

As a suggestion, the subatomic particles in this physics model, increase their stability when they move

As a suggestion, when a subatomic particle in the model moves, its electric field escapes in a more forward direction, than when the subatomic particle is stationary, lessening the ability of the escaping electric field to destabalise the subatomic particle into decay

The constant speed of the strand shaped particle suggests that when the electron, proton and neutron form an atom in this physics model

The atom will have relativistic behaviour when the atom moves

For example, the shape of the electron orbitals in the atom foreshorten along the direction that the atom is travelling

In this physics model

There is nothing special about the speed of light

And a particle of light experiences events just as any other particle experiences events

Nor is there anything special about faster than light travel

For that is how the strand shaped elementary particle moves

And as a consequence for example, the surface of the electron has a constant movement that is faster than the speed of light

Perhaps one way to think of movement in the model

Is that everything in the atomic world moves at a reasonable, steady pace

And it is us who are very large, and it is us who do things very, very slowly

In general, the measurement of the speed of light as a constant, regardless as to the observer's own motion

Is perhaps because objects become less able to measure relative speed

As they themselves approach the speed of light

Note that, when the speed of light is discussed as being measured as a constant

It is with reference to measuring the speed of light as a round-trip

The measurement of the speed of light over a one-way trip has yet to be measured